Surah 39:71-75:
"And those who disbelieved will be driven to Hell in groups until, when they reach it, its gates are opened and its keepers will say, 'Did there not come to you messengers from yourselves...?' [...] But those who feared their Lord will be driven to Paradise in groups until, when they reach it while its gates have been opened and its keepers say, 'Peace be upon you...' [...] And you will see the angels surrounding the Throne, exalting [Allah] with praise of their Lord, and it will be judged between them in truth, and it will be said, '[All] praise is [due] to Allah, Lord of the worlds.'"
To a historical-critical scholar, secular philosopher, or Christian polemicist, Surah 39:71–75 provides a vivid window into the highly anthropomorphic, physical, and imperial imagery utilized by the Quran to depict the Day of Judgment. These verses expose a profound rift between the raw, literalist text of the Meccan revelations and the highly abstract, transcendent theology developed by later Islamic scholasticism.
Verse 75 presents the ultimate climax of cosmic justice: God sitting upon a physical throne (al-ʿArsh) while legions of angels physically circle and patrol the perimeter (ḥāffīna min ḥawli l-ʿarsh) singing His praises.
The Critique:
To the historical critic, this scene is not a unique metaphysical insight, but a direct replica of a Hellenistic, Byzantine, or Sasanian imperial court. The deity is cast in the mold of an ancient Near Eastern absolute monarch who requires a physical seat of power, a visual display of majesty, and a literal entourage of courtiers (angels) to validate His sovereignty through coordinated royal chants.
The Philosophical Conflict:
This materialist depiction clashes violently with the concept of an omnipresent, immaterial, and infinite supreme being. If God is non-spatial and exists everywhere, he does not require a localized chair, nor do angels need to physically position themselves "around" Him to perform a court ritual.
The imagery of concentric rings of angels standing around the divine throne-chariot singing liturgical praises is a highly specific literary motif with deep roots in earlier Jewish and Christian mystical texts.
The Historical Sources:
This framework directly mirrors Merkabah Mysticism found in Jewish apocalyptic works like the Book of Enoch (1 Enoch 61:10-12) and the New Testament Book of Revelation (7:11): "And all the angels were standing around the throne and around the elders and the four living creatures, and they fell on their faces before the throne and worshiped God."
The Verdict:
Critics argue that the author of the Quran was deeply influenced by the popular, oral apocalyptic lore circulating through Christian and Jewish sectarian networks in the 7th-century Arabian Peninsula. Rather than delivering a brand-new revelation, the text repackages existing Judeo-Christian eschatological set-pieces to intimidate and awe its pagan audience.
Verses 71 and 73 frame both Hell and Paradise as highly concrete, structural, and earthly fortresses. They feature literal gates (abwāb) that mechanically slide open upon arrival and are manned by physical guards or keepers (khazanatuhā) who engage in conversational dialogues with the incoming crowds.
The Critique:
This spatial and architectural framework treats the afterlife as a physical destination subject to regional urban planning constraints. The mechanics of moving large masses of people "in groups" (zumarā) through specific physical choke points (gates) reflects a limited, 7th-century human imagination operating on the model of walled ancient cities (like Damascus, Jerusalem, or Mecca), rather than a truly transcendental, spiritual dimension of existence.
Because Surah 39:75 paints such an undeniably physical picture of the divine presence, it became an intense battleground for early Islamic theologians, sparking internal sectarian divisions that remain unresolved to this day.
The Atharis (Literalists / Salafis):
They look at this passage and insist on a literal interpretation. They argue that Allah possesses a real, physical Throne, and that He literally sits on top of it, though they add the caveat Bila Kayf ("without asking how").
The Ash'arites and Mu'tazilites (Rationalists):
They found this literal court imagery deeply problematic and bordering on polytheistic anthropomorphism (Tashbih). To save the text from its own literalism, they were forced to perform massive linguistic gymnastics—arguing that the "Throne" is merely a metaphor for "dominion," and that "surrounding the Throne" simply means the angels are close to God in status, completely rewriting the explicit, visual prose of the verse.